The Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics (BGA)
was created as a Web-based "textbook." The creation of the
BGA is a research project to explore the use of the personal computer
and the Internet to present educational materials to students, teachers,
and lifelong learners in a more interactive way than a printed,
bound textbook.
As a general rule, the Web consists of many individual pages
that are connected, or related, to one another through hyperlinks.
The Web is, therefore, much less structured than a bound book, in
which one page follows another in a definite, numbered sequence.
We have intentionally organized the BGA to mirror this unstructured
approach. Users can navigate the pages of the BGA through
hyperlinks based on their own interest and inquiry.
For those who prefer more structure to the information available
at the BGA, we have organized an alternative to the unstructured
approach--a number of guided tours through the site. Each
tour is organized around a single topic, and users move from page
to page through the tour by using special buttons at the bottom
of each page.
Click to move back to the previous page.
Click to move to the next page.
Click to return to this page at the end of each tour.
(Some pages will be "crossed" by more than one tour, so it is
important to remember which tour you are on. If you click on a hyperlink
you will leave the tour; you can rejoin the tour by using the browser's
"Back" command. If you wish to abort a tour and return here,
just click on the "Guided Tours" label located above the buttons.
)
All of the tours begin and end on this page unless otherwise noted.
Descriptions of each tour are given below--just click on the name
of the tour to start you on your way. Have fun!
- Newton's Laws of Motion The
motion of aircraft can be accurately described by the classical
Laws of Motion developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the late 1600's.
- Forces, Torques, and Motion
As an object moves through space it translates and rotates. The
translations are in direct response to forces on the object. The
rotations are in response to torques on the object.
- Thermodynamics Thermodynamics
is the study of the effects of work, heat and energy on a system.
There are three laws of thermodynamics based on large scale observations.
- Combustion Modern aircraft
are powered by jet engines which produce thrust by burning a fuel.
Combustion is the chemical process which combines fuel, oxygen,
and a source of heat to produce heat and exhaust products.
- Basic Fluid Dynamics Equations
The motion of any fluid can be described by the conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy.
- Compressible Aerodynamics Additional
forces are present when an object travels through a gas at speeds
near or faster than the speed of sound for the gas. Shock waves
may also be present in the flow field.
- Aircraft Weight Weight is
a major design consideration for all aircraft. Equations have
been developed to compute the aircraft's weight and center of
gravity during design.
- Standard Atmosphere Model
The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas that separates the surface
of the planet from outer space. The properties of the gas change
with altitude through the atmosphere.
- Gas Statics The properties
of a gas are related to one another. You can learn about the properties
of a gas by considering a static volume of gas.
- Speed of Sound Small disturbances
in a gas are transmitted at the speed of sound which depends on
the temperature of the gas. The Mach number is the ratio of an
object's speed to the speed of sound.
- Sound Waves Small disturbances
in a gas are transmitted through the gas as spherical waves. If
the source of the disturbance is moving the waves are distorted.
- Pitot Tube A Pitot Tube is a
device for measuring the speed of an aircraft through the air.
It depends on an application of Bernoulli's equation for a moving
fluid.
- Wind Tunnels Wind Tunnels
are large devices used to test models of proposed aircraft. (This
tour does not return to this page)
- Forces on an Airplane There
are four forces that act on an airplane. The motion of an aircraft
depends on the relative magnitude of the forces. So you must first
understand what the forces are, how they are directed, the nature
of the forces, and how they are related.
- Cruising Aircraft If the
four forces on an aircraft are perfectly balanced, the aircraft
flies in a straight line at a constant speed. Equations have been
developed which describe cruising flight.
- Into the Wind The aerodynamic
forces on an airplane depend on the difference in velocity between
the airplane and the air. Determining the forces and resulting
motion is complicated by the wind.
- Parts of an Airplane Airplanes
are composed of many parts with many different functions. Learn
to recognize and identify the different parts of an airplane.
- Fuselage The fuselage
(or body) of the airplane holds all of the parts together
and carries the passengers or cargo.
- Jet Engines Most modern
aircraft are powered by gas turbine, or jet engines.
- Wings The wings generate
most of the lift necessary for flight.
- Ailerons Ailerons are parts
of the wing which are used to roll the aircraft.
- Spoilers Spoilers are parts
of the wing which are used to roll the aircraft and to decrease
lift and increase drag during landings.
- Flaps and Slats Flaps and
Slats are parts of the wing which are used during take off
and landing to increase lift and drag.
- Elevators Elevators are control
surfaces connected to the horizontal stabilizer and are used
to pitch the aircraft.
- Stabilators Stabilators
are control surfaces which provide both horizontal stability
and pitch control for the aircraft.
- Rudder A Rudder is a control
surface connected to the vertical stabilizer and used to yaw
the aircraft.
- Control Surfaces On a modern
aircraft, there are several moving parts which are used to control
the motion of the aircraft. This tour examines these parts and
the resulting motion.
- Forces on a Glider Gliders
are unpowered aircraft. The forces on gliders and the response
to external forces is quite similar to powered aircraft. Examples:
paper airplanes and the Space Shuttle
- Gliding Flight Gliders are
unpowered aircraft. The flight of a glider is a little easier
to analyze than the flight of a powered aircraft
- Forces on a Kite Kites are
unpowered aircraft. They are very similar to gliders except that,
instead of moving through air, a kite is held still and the blowing
air moves past the kite.
- Kite Flying You can learn a
great deal about aerodynamics by flying a kite.
- KiteModeler - Kite Simulator
KiteModeler is an interactive computer program that lets you design
and flight test a kite.
- Forces on a Model Rocket
The forces on a model rocket are similar to forces on an aircraft
although the thrust is used to overcome weight.
- Stability of a Model Rocket
A model rocket relies on aerodynamics to provide stability during
flight.
- Flight of a Model Rocket
The flight of a model rocket depends on the relative size of the
forces on the rocket.
- Parts of a Model Rocket
Flying model rockets is a relatively safe and inexpensive way
for students to learn about aerodynamics and propulsion.
- RocketModeler - Model Rocket Simulator
RocketModeler is an interactive computer program that lets you
design and flight test a model rocket.
- Falling Objects An object
falling through the atmosphere is subjected to two forces, weight
and drag, and attains a constant terminal velocity. If the object
were falling in a vacuum, only gravity would act on the object.
- Objects that Generate Lift Many
objects generate lift as they move through a fluid.
- CurveBall - Baseball Simulation
A big league baseball player can throw a curveball because of
aerodynamic forces on the ball. Investigate the forces on the
ball by using this simulation program.
- Theories of Lift Lift is the
force that keeps an aircraft flying. Many theories for the generation
of lift have been proposed.
- Factors that Affect Lift Lift
is the force that keeps an aircraft flying. There are many factors
that affect the amount of lift generated by a body.
- Lift Equation Lift is the force
that keeps an aircraft flying. There is a simple algebraic equation
to relate the factors that affect lift.
- FoilSim - Lift Simulator FoilSim
is an interactive computer program that lets you design a wing
on-line and determine the theoretical lift of the wing.
- Sources of Drag Drag is the
force that opposes the motion of an object through the air. There
are several different sources of aircraft drag.
- Factors that Affect Drag Drag
is the force that opposes an aircraft's motion. There are many
factors that affect the amount of drag generated by a body.
- Drag Equation Drag is the force
that opposes the aircraft's motion . There is a simple algebraic
equation to relate the factors that affect drag.
- Propulsion Systems Thrust
is the force that pushes an airplane through the air. There are
many different types of propulsion systems which generate thrust.
- Propellers For the forty
years following the Wright Brothers first flight, aircraft
used propellers to produce thrust. Modern general aviation
aircraft still use propellers.
- Jet Engines Most modern
aircraft are powered by gas turbine, or jet engines. There
are several different types of jet engines which are used
for different missions.
- Turbojets The turbojet
is the most basic type of gas turbine engine.
- Afterburning Turbojets
To develop the extra thrust needed for supersonic flight,
an afterburner is often connected to the exit of a turbojet
or turbofan engine.
- Turbofans Most modern
airliners are powered by highly efficient turbofan engines.
- Turboprops Many small
commuter airliners use highly efficient turboprop engines.
The turboprop uses a gas turbine engine to turn a propeller.
- Ramjets A ramjet engine
produces thrust by burning a fuel at high pressure and exhausting
the gas through a nozzle. The high pressure is produced by
the forward speed of the vehicle.
- Rockets A rocket engine
produces thrust by burning a fuel at high pressure and exhausting
the gas through a nozzle. The oxygen for combustion is carried
with the propulsion system.
- Parts of a Jet Engine Jet
Engines are composed of many parts with many different functions.
Learn to recognize and identify the different parts of a jet engine.
- Inlet The inlet sits upstream
of the compressor and brings air into the engine.
- Compressor The compressor
increases the pressure of the air while delivering it to the
burner.
- Combustor or Burner Combustion
of the fuel takes place in the burner. Fuel is mixed with
high pressure air from the compressor and burned.
- Power Turbine The power
turbine sits downstream of the burner and extracts some energy
from the hot exhaust to power the compressor.
- Nozzle The nozzle is a
specially shaped tube which accelerates the hot exhaust gas
to produce thrust.
- Thrust Equation Mathematical
equations have been developed which describe the generation of
aircraft thrust.
- Calculating Fuel Flow Rate
Mathematical equations have been developed which describe the
fuel usage of a jet engine.
- EngineSim - Engine Simulator
EngineSim is an interactive computer program that lets you design
a turbine engine on-line and determine the theoretical thrust,
fuel flow, and weight of your engine.
- Basic Aircraft Motion The
motion of an airplane through the air can be described as a combination
of translation and rotation.
- Cruising Flight If the four
forces on an aircraft are perfectly balanced, the aircraft flies
in a straight line at a constant speed.
- Aircraft Roll Motion A roll
motion is caused by deflecting the ailerons which causes the wings
tips to move up and down.
- Aircraft Pitch Motion A
pitch motion is caused by deflecting the elevators which causes
the aircraft nose to move up and down.
- Aircraft Yaw Motion A yaw
motion is caused by deflecting the rudder which causes the aircraft
nose to move side to side.
- Banking Turns An airplane changes
direction by rolling in the direction of the turn and producing
a gradual curved flight path.
- Gradual Climb An airplane climbs
whenever the lift is greater than the weight. The rate of climb
is increased by high excess thrust.
- FoilSim - Lift Simulator FoilSim
is an interactive computer program that lets you design a wing
on-line and determine the theoretical lift of the wing.
- EngineSim - Engine Simulator
EngineSim is an interactive computer program that lets you design
a turbine engine on-line and determine the theoretical thrust,
fuel flow, and weight of your engine.
- CurveBall - Baseball Simulation
A big league baseball player can throw a curveball because of
aerodynamic forces on the ball. Investigate the forces on the
ball by using this simulation program.
- RangeGames RangeGames is
an interactive computer program that presents problems for you
to solve. The problems involve aspects of cruising flight and
aircraft take-off.
- RocketModeler - Model Rocket Simulator
RocketModeler is an interactive computer program that lets you
design and flight test a model rocket.
- KiteModeler - Kite Simulator
KiteModeler is an interactive computer program that lets you design
and flight test a kite.
- Interactive Atmosphere Model
This interactive computer program lets you study how the properties
of the atmosphere change with altitude.
- Interactive Sound Waves This
interactive computer program lets you study how the doppler shift
occurs and how shock waves are formed.
- Interactive Shock Waves This
interactive computer program lets you study shock waves generated
by supersonic flow passing a wedge.
- Interactive Isentropic Flow
This interactive computer program lets you study isentropic supersonic
flows.
- Interactive Nozzle Flow This
interactive computer program lets you study how rocket and turbine
engine nozzles operate.
- Beginner's Guide to Aerodynamics
- Beginner's Guide to Propulsion
- Beginner's Guide to
Model Rockets
- Beginner's Guide to Kites
- Beginner's Guide to
Aeronautics
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- Beginner's Guide Home
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byTom Benson
Please send suggestions/corrections to: benson@grc.nasa.gov
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